We have prepared a brochure presenting some of the things made possible with industrial explosives. The explosives industry was founded in this country during its very beginnings, when black powder was used to mine for minerals, break rock, clear fields and make roads.

It is not an overstatement to say that this nation was built with the help of explosives. In the s, Alfred Nobel, a Swede, invented dynamite and the blasting cap required to make it explode. He licensed it in the United States and the industrial revolution began. With dynamite, mines could be dug deeper and more quickly, and uneconomical deposits thus became profitable. The new detection method is able to analyze a wider range of materials than current These give hints to scientists about the conditions under which diamonds are formed deep in the Earth's mantle.

Despite having been known since , the explosive jump has not been fully A new study has now shown that both skills rely on Have We Detected Dark Energy? Scientists Say It's a Possibility. Their models could help researchers develop and test potential drugs for A research team discovered the quantum Getting medication past the brain's unique and protective blood Pelouze added Pelouze, that Richier had found that pyroxylin was soluble in methyl and ethyl acetates and that this property allowed a more exact chemical analysis, and that he believed that its correct empirical formula was C 24 H 17 O 17' 5NO 5.

This formula explained why this explosive did not leave a solid residue on burning because it burned completely into gases and water vapor.

A letter to Pelouze from J. Four grains of pyroxylin charged into a pistol produced the same results as six grains of gunpowder. Adding concentrated sulfuric acid under agitation precipitated the pyroxylin completely as white flakes, without appreciable loss of weight and with all the original properties, except for their shape.

De Vrij suggested to Pelouze that this flocculent form might find use in the manufacture of percussion caps. Adding to the nitric solution water instead of sulfuric acid precipitated bitter tasting flakes, which were soluble in alcohol and in a large amount of water, burned well in contact with a flame or upon heating, but at a slower rate that pyroxylin, and left a carbon residue. Another interesting finding was that acetone transformed instantly pyroxylin into a transparent gel that coagulated by addition of water into white flakes looking very much like cotton.

Addition of large amounts of acetone resulted in the complete solution of pyroxylin. Pyroxylin was dissolved by caustic soda, while the cotton, which had been used for this preparation was not attacked. Water or acids did not precipitate the resulting solution. Concentrated sulfuric acid dissolved pyroxylin at room temperature without coloration.

Addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to a nitric solution of cotton precipitated pyroxylin. For this reason de Vrij doubted that both had the same composition. Anselme Payen Payen, recommended that in order to prepare pyroxylin with the highest combustible properties, it was necessary to use cellulose free of ligneous incrustations and purified of all the mineral, fatty materials, and nitrogenous materials, etc.

The nitric and sulfuric acids should be free of nitrous oxide because this gas impaired the quality of the product. At his request Morin had performed ballistic experiments of nitric cotton prepared either with a pure acid mixture or loaded with nitrogen monoxide, and found that the explosive product made with the pure acids sent the cannon ball It was Pelouze's last remark, which caused Sobrero to react.

I add that I have already analyzed fulminant sugar and although I have been unable to avoid the formation of nitrogen oxides during the combustion, the results that I have obtained thus far lead me to believe that this compound will be formed of sugar C 12 H 11 0 11 less two equivalents of water and plus two equivalents of nitric acid. According to Sobrero, the composition of glycerin could no longer be represented by carbon and water and its combination with fatty acids indicated that it behaved like a base.

Being somewhat analogue to sugar and lignin it could be assumed to react in a similar manner as these substances. So far, his results proved that glycerin reacted with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acids to give a compound similar to fulminant cotton. If the mixture of the two acids was kept in a refrigeration mixture and the glycerin added slowly to avoid an increase in temperature, it dissolved completely without apparent reaction.

If the mixture was now added to water, an oily material heavier-than-water settled at the bottom. This oily layer was separated and washed with a large amount of water to eliminate completely the acids, without loss because it was insoluble in water. The washed material could be dissolved completely in alcohol and re-precipitated with water or it could be dissolved in ether and left to evaporate naturally.

Complete drying was achieved by keeping the material under sulfuric acid for several days. The dry material looked like olive oil slightly colored yellow. It was substantially heavier than water and totally insoluble in it. It dissolved easily in alcohol and ether; it was odorless, tasted sweet, piquant and aromatic. Sobrero added another observation which would later prove to have tremendous medical importance: "This examination taste must be done carefully because it is enough to put a small amount which can be taken by slightly moisturing the end of the little finger on the tongue to experiment a strong headache during several hours.

This action on the human body has been confirmed by several persons in my laboratory and I have tried it myself several times until I was sure it did not have toxic properties.

In this paper, and a following one Sobrero, c , Sobrero gave a detailed description of his method of preparing nitromannite. Nitromannite detonated under a hammer blow with the same violence as mercury fulminant and its decomposition generated enough heat necessary to ignite the gunpowder in a rifle.

Sobrero replaced the mercury fulminant in percussion caps by his new compound and found these new caps to fire as good as ordinary ones. A clear advantage for the substitution was that nitromannite was easer to fabricate than mercury fulminant and did not expose the workers to the serious dangers present when fabricating fulminant powder.

In addition, Sobrero believed that fulminant mannite was cheaper to manufacture because mannitol was not expensive and its manufacture left a non-crystallizable residue mixed with a little of mannite, which could be used in medicine and veterinary as a purgative.

In addition, the conversion of mannite to nitric mannite resulted in a substantial increase in weight from to In later publications on the subject Sobrero, , Sobrero added more information about the properties of nitromannite. The material seemed to decompose completely into carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water, left no residue and could be stored indefinitely without decomposition.

Contrary to other nitro organic products, nitromannite was obtained easily in crystalline form, very fragile and easily converted into powder. Humidified with an appropriate liquid it could be worked into a paste or granulated. The dry powder did not absorb humidity from the air.

Later experiments had shown that amorphous and crystalline nitromannite decomposed in the presence of diffuse light. With direct light the decomposition was very fast, releasing nitric vapor, water, etc.

These facts made the use of nitromannite in war weapons questionable because it might decompose and make the weapon inefficient for attack or defense. Sobrero's main contribution to the development of modern explosives was initially described in a paper read before the Academy of Sciences of Turin Sobrero, c , in which he gave a very detailed description of the manufacture of nitroglycerine by reacting glycerin with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids.

Interesting enough, in spite of being aware of the dangers of self-detonation of the product, he kept a gram sample, which much later he donated to the Academy. Sobrero's face was badly scarred as a result of an explosion in the s. The details of the discovery and fabrication process of nitroglycerine were repeated in papers published in and Sobrero, , , together with a description of additional properties of nitroglycerine: "Pyroglycerin has a density of 1. It has a sweet and agreeable taste and presents toxic properties.

A drop of it heated slowly over a platinum plate seems to decompose generating nitrous vapors. At a higher temperature the decomposition is fast with deflagration and flame, leaving a small carbonaceous residue. A small amount heated fast to the decomposition temperature, decomposes violently. A small drop of a few decigrams can produce a detonation similar to the firing of a rifle.

The glass of the vessel in which this experiment is performed will break if it is not strong enough". Pyroglycerin exerts a toxic action on animal physiology: "It is enough to put a small drop on the tongue and spit it immediately, to experience a strong headache for many hours. Four or five centigrams introduced in the stomach will kill a sucking pig.

This toxic property has been observed with a mouse and a capybara a small rodent from Brazil. Pyroglycerin acts as an oxidant on phosphorus, copper, and potassium. It dissolves in a hot aqueous solution of potassium hydroxides and becomes brown.

With hydrogen chloride it yields chlorine and a kind of aqua regia. The physiological properties of pyroglycerin are very interesting and require a careful study; they may lead to useful applications.

In a later communication to the Academy of Turin, read on Sobrero, , Sobrero recapitulated the history of the product and insisted that he had not discovered it while staying at Pelouze's laboratory but during his tenure at the Scuola di Meccanica e di Chimica Applicata alle Artes in Turin: "hence, nitroglycerine is the fruit of Italian work exclusively When I think of all the victims killed during nitroglycerine explosions, and the terrible havoc that has been wreaked, which in all probability will continue to occur in the future, I am almost ashamed to admit to be its discoverer.

According to Dumas Dumas, initially gunpowder a committee appointed by the French War Ministry in changed the name pyroxylin to guncotton was celebrated in excess, criticized extensively, and discarded with indifference. The plan was to compare the effect produced by an underwater explosion of gunpowder and cotton powder on the granite rocks.

The gunpowder powder explosion hardly damaged the rocks while that of cotton powder caused the disappearance of a huge rock and reduced it to pieces. Not only that, the explosion threw a very large number of deep-dwelling fish to the surface of the sea, either dead or stunned. This surprising result was also used a proof that the mortality of fish that accompanied maritime volcano eruptions was not necessarily due to the heating of the water or to the release of poisonous gases; it could very well be caused by the brusque movement of masses of water.

The armies did not see a menace in the fast explosion of cotton powder that pulverized granite. Artillerymen would classify cotton powder in the category of smashing powders, which should be kept away from the arsenals.

Ordinary powders were different in the sense that powder cannon could catch fire while being prepared as a result of an accidental shock; experience indicated that they did not inflame spontaneously in the storage room.

Once prepared, the only dangers associated with gunpowder were the ones resulting from its mishandling. The situation with cotton powder was different, it could be prepared rather safely but its storage presented a safety risk. Not only that, degraded cotton powder lost its explosive power and converted largely into sugary material.

After fourteen years, about one-half of the samples exposed to air and humidity would decompose without detonating.

Thus cotton powder remained what it was from the very beginning, a material appropriate for mining more than for military uses. In , Pelouze and Maurey, one of the gunpowder commissars, reported on the use of guncotton as a war agent Pelouze and Maurey, This paper was an extensive critical report on the new procedures developed by the Austrian general Lenk for fabricating and using guncotton. Between and this establishment had provided about kg of the product for the many experiments done in France to substitute by guncotton the gunpowder used in mines and fire arms.

Similarly, the Austrian Army had established large manufacturing facilities at Hirtenberg, under the direction of Lenk, but until their process remained a mystery, no foreigner having been admitted to the factory. In France, two main objections had been raised against the substitution, one based on the fragility effect that the new powder imparted to the walls of weapons, and the other related to the accidents of decomposition and spontaneous explosions that had been observed in France and aboard.

A strong explosion at the Austrian factory in had led to a substantial reduction of the manufacture, until Lenk had introduced some alleged improvements in the process.

Although Lenk did not contest the possible exothermic reactions that could lead to the inflammation of guncotton, he believed that taking appropriate measures during the preparation process could prevent them.

The Lenk procedure was based on the same chemical reactions as the ones used at the Bouchet arsenal. The Austrian and French guncottons were a compound resulting from the immersion of cotton in a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. The proportions of these two acids could be varied in a wide range without modifying the quality of the product. According to Lenk, the method used at Bouchet, where g of cotton were reacted with 2 liters of acid mixture, did not yield the same product as the Austrian one, which used a substantially larger volume of acids and special equipment for mixing the reagents.

This action retarded the development of gases and eliminated the traces of acid they might contain. The French researchers analyzed all the information available from Austria and compared guncotton prepared by the two methods. Nitroglycerine was the first, and is still one of the most widely produced nitrate esters. It is used in dynamites produced by absorbing nitroglycerine in fine wood meal or other powdered absorbent.

This process prevents the formation of micro bubbles and stabilizes the liquid. The nitroglycerine is also thickened or gelatinized by the addition of a small percentage of nitrocellulose, a process which assists in preventing "weeping" exuding or settling out of the absorbent material.